1. In all this the seeds of the Conquest were sowing, or rather, as I once put it, it is now that the Conquest actually begins. The reign of Edward is a period of struggle between natives and foreigners for dominion in England. The foreigners win the upper hand, and for a time they are actually dominant. Then a national reaction overthrows their influence and the noblest of living Englishmen becomes the virtual ruler. But this happy change did not take place till the strangers had become accustomed to look on English estates and honours as their right, a right which they soon learned to think they might one day assert by force of arms. The foreign favourites of Edward were in truth the advanced guard of William.

E A Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest

To what events is Freeman referring here, and how justifiable is his opinion of the Norman presence in pre-1066 England?

2. About the same time, Edward, king of the English, who loved William as a brother or son, established him as his heir with a stronger pledge than ever before ... He therefore dispatched Harold to William in order that he might confirm his promise by an oath ... When they had come together in conference in Bonneville, Harold in that place swore fealty to the duke employing the sacred ritual recognised among Christian men. And as is testified by the most truthful and most honourable men who were there present, he took an oath of his own free will in the following terms: firstly that he would be the representative of Duke William at the court of his lord, King Edward, as long as the king lived; secondly that he would employ all his influence and wealth to ensure that after the death of King Edward the kingdom of England should be confirmed in the possession of the duke.

William of Poitiers, The Deeds of William, Duke of the Normans

i) How far is William of Poitiers description of the oath supported by other sources?

ii) Why was the oath such an important part of Norman propaganda after 1066?

3. And they [Archbishop Aldred, Edgar, Morcar Edwin and the men of London] submitted out of necessity after most damage had been done- and it was a great piece of folly that they had not done it earlier, since God would not make things better because of our sins. And they gave hostages and swore oaths to him [William], and he promised them that he would be a gracious liege lord, and yet in the meantime they ravaged all that they overran. Then on Christmas day Archbishop Aldred consecrated him king at Westminster. And he promised Aldred on Christ’s book and swore moreover (before Aldred would place the crown on his head) that he would rule this people as well as the best of the kings before him, if they would be loyal to him. All the same he laid taxes on people very severely and then went in spring overseas to Normandy, and took with him ... Edgar Cild, and Earl Edwin and Earl Morcar and Earl Waltheof, and many other good men from England. And bishop Odo and Earl William [FitzOsbern] stayed behind and built castles far and wide throughout this country and distressed the wretched folk, and always after that it grew much worse. May the end be good when God wills!

The D Version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Assess the Chronicle’s description of the early years of William’s rule. What is the significance of the various men mentioned in the second half?

4. This King William of whom we speak was a very wise man, and very powerful and more worshipful and stronger than any predecessor of his had been. He was gentle to the good men who loved God and stern beyond all measure to those people who resisted his will ... Also he was very dignified: three times every year he wore his crown, as often as he was in England ... Also he was a very stern and violent man, so that no one dared to do anything contrary to his will. He had earls in his fetters, who acted against his will. He expelled bishops from their sees, and abbots from their abbacies, and put thegns in prison, and finally he did not spare his own brother, who was called Odo ... Amongst the other things the good security he made in this country is not to be forgotten- so that any honest man could travel over this kingdom without injury with his bosom full of gold; and no one dared strike another, however much wrong he had done him.

The E Version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Discuss the Chronicle’s assessment of William the Conqueror

5. After this the king had much thought and deep discussion with his council about this country- how it was occupied or with what sort of people. Then he sent his men over all England into every shire and had them find out how many hundred hides there were in the shire, or what land and cattle the king himself had in the country, or what dues he ought to have in 12 months from the shire... So narrowly did he have it investigated, that there was no single hide nor virgate of land, nor indeed (it is a shame to relate but it seemed no shame to him to do) one ox or one cow, nor one pig which was there left out, and not put down in his record; and all these records were brought to him afterwards.

The E Version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

King William caused all England to be described: how much each of his barons possessed; and how many enfeoffed knights; and how many ploughs, villeins, animals and livestock, each one possessed in all his kingdom from the greatest to the least; and what due each estate was able to render. And as a consequence the land was vexed with much violence.

Florence of Worcester, Chronicle of Chronicles

6. In the year 1080 an inquiry was held concerning the liberty of the abbey of Ely. There was a danger that this liberty would be extinguished completely since it had been neglected for 14 years owing to the restrictions imposed by king William and since it had been almost destroyed by the unjust excations of his officials ... but the king was moved by godly piety ... He gave orders that these matters should be investigated at an assembly at Kentford which would consist of the shire courts of three adjacent shires. Many took part in the pleadings: four abbots and their followers both French and English ... four sheriffs, three emissaries of the king and many other respected French knights and Englishmen from the four shires of Essex, Hertford, Huntingdon and Bedford. This is the settlement of the liberty of Ely: that it ought to be respected as the holy queen [the founder] had it in the beginning; and as it was protected and restored by kings Edgar, Aethelred and Edward ... and the king with careful forethought associated himself with the verdict, strengthened it with his orders. William, king of the English, to all his faithful vassals and to his sheriffs in all the shires in which the abbey of Ely holds lands, greeting. I order that the abbey shall possess in all its lands all its customary rights over all men ... Let the abbey hold these, I say, as it held them on the say on which king Edward was alive and dead, and as they have been proved be my order at Kentford by several shire courts.

Record of the plea concerning the lands of Ely.

i) What light does this trial shed on the aftermath of the Norman Conquest?

ii) Discuss the question of continuity across 1066 with particular reference to this trial.